The
importance of protein science was recognized long ago when the 1948 Nobel Prize
in Chemistry went to Arne Tiselius for his discoveries concerning the complex
nature of serum proteins. However, it was the work of Franklin, Collins, Crick,
and Watson that vastly impacted our thinking about biology. By discovering the
structure of DNA, these scientists both captivated the worlds attention
and sparked an interest in better understanding the information encoded by our
genes. We are now at a stage where scientists are sequencing genomes faster than
people can download music illegally.
In 10 years, genomic research has delivered hundreds of complete sequences,
ranging from human and mouse species to various viruses, parasites, naturally
occurring plasmids, organelles, eubacteria, archaea, and fungi. The concept of
sequence knowledge has enabled us to rationalize its context, and it has become
clear that merely deciphering a genetic sequence does not reveal the whole picture.
At best, only the potential of a system can be understood by knowing the genetic
components. Systematic rapid detection and quantitation of biological activity
can now be performed via differential-display PCR, cDNA microarrays, or serial
analysis of gene expression (SAGE). These powerful tools, together with complete
genomes, have ushered in the need for new high-throughput and highly sensitive
technologies that can similarly measure proteins.
Knowledge of proteins is important, as they are the mature products of genes
and represent end points of gene expression; they contribute to, and catalyze,
the changes we study in a biological system. The contribution of protein measurements
to existing gene-expression measurements complements and extends our knowledge.
There are three areas where proteins have distinctive control and regulation over
biological effects, starting with their temporal and spatial expression, which
is not apparent from genomic or gene expression analysis. Second, static and dynamic
protein post-translational modifications (PTMs) are richly varied, with more than
200 different types having been documented to date. Usually there is no predefined
knowledge of their location, but even with the knowledge of a consensus
sequence (a possible PTM event), there are few rules describing when and where
in the cell specific PTMs occur, even for highly studied events such as phosphorylation.
Finally, inducible proteinligand interactions cannot be measured with genomic
technologies.
In recent years, research has emphasized that cellular functions are not carried
out by singular components but are performed by modules made up of
many interacting molecules, mostly proteins. These functional modules exist as
a critical level of biological organization. Currently, only proteomic technologies
can generate data based on interacting proteins that will lead to understanding
biological regulation.
Profiling technologies
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Figure 1. From single molecules to complex
mixtures and protein modules. Dynamic fractionation implies a time-limited
analysis, whereas static fractionation allows for a workflow that can be paused
at specific steps. (Adapted with permission from Corthals, G. L.; Nelson, P. S.
Pharmacogenomics J. 2001, 1, 1519.) |
In addition to enhancing the ability and speed of making protein measurements,
any analysis must be performed in a systematic, quantitative, and reproducible
manner. Figure 1 shows typically used technologies that allow for global protein
analysis. The mass spectrometer is central to most screening techniques because
it enables outstanding speed and accuracy in protein identification.
Until about 2000, proteomics was almost exclusively performed by qualitative
and quantitative display of tissue extracts or cellular protein expression profiles
via two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) followed by MS. With 2-DE, protein
arrays are generated, and one can pinpoint differences between different biological
states via differential pattern display. The number of applications and uses of
proteomic technologies has become widespread because of this relatively simple
setup. Most labs now have MS instruments with workflows incorporating 1- and 2-DE,
multidimensional LC, affinity chromatography, and quantitative labeling strategies.
While less common, non-MS-based workflows are important for measurements of proteinligand
interactions. Such technologies include yeast two-hybrid (three-hybrid, etc.),
phage display, ribosome display, RNApeptide fusions, and other protein and
peptide arrays (for more information, see www.biochipnet.de).
In recent years, much effort has been directed toward developing technologies
that enable global quantitative expression analysis to complement or bypass two-dimensional
gels. It is generally accepted that, although 2-DE is a mature and widely practiced
method, it is unable to display all the proteins within a biological system. MS-based
quantitative measurements look like they will provide the key to analyze more
proteins. These methods are designed to automate, accelerate, and more precisely
measure protein changes between various disease states. Interestingly, they are
essentially based on the venerable technique of stable isotope labeling.
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Figure 2. Labeling methods for proteome-wide
quantitative analysis. Biological labeling procedures performed in vivo differ
from chemical labeling procedures in that labeling of the peptide or protein is
achieved by growing cells in media enriched in stable-isotope-containing amino
acids. With in vitro chemical labeling, a derivatization reagent is used to tag
proteins after harvesting from the cells. |
A breakthrough to global quantitative MS-centered (i.e., high-speed) proteomics
came five years ago, when Ruedi Aebersold and colleagues crafted new molecules
to address the needs of discovery science through their clever work on the isotope-coded
affinity tag (ICAT) reagents. The method using ICAT reagents (Figure 2) consists
of four sequential steps. First, the side chains of cysteinyl residues in a protein
mixture are reduced and alkylated with the isotopically light form of the ICAT
reagent. Equivalent groups in a sample representing a second disease (or cell)
state are derivatized in a similar manner with the isotopically heavy reagent.
The two samples are then combined and enzymatically digested to generate peptide
fragments. Third, the tagged peptides (those with a cysteine) are isolated by
avidin affinity chromatography. Finally, the affinity-tagged peptides are released
from the column and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. This analysis finally reveals both the
quantity and sequence identity of the proteins from which the tagged peptides
originated. Numerous reports have now emphasized the value of this strategy.
While their application was slow initially, they were widely discussed. In
effect, these chemicals provided proof of a concept, which was to quantitatively
compare two massively complex protein mixtures that were originally derived from
cells, tissues, and body fluids. Indeed, this strategy captured the attention
of many researchers and spurred the quest for alternative methods to apply to
the countless applications in proteomics. There is now a collection of compounds
that are slightly similar to this chemistry, but they are all based on the same
concept, with or without affinity tagthe latest of which are Applied Biosystems
iTRAQ reagents.
What distinguishes the iTRAQ chemicalswhich include four isobaric reagentsfrom
others is the ability to measure up to four samples simultaneously, whereas other
methods allow the comparison of only two. The iTRAQ labeling chemistry is peptide-oriented
and involves the incorporation of an isobaric compound specific to amines in up
to four different peptide mixtures. Relative or absolute quantitationthrough
labeling of peptides of known concentrationcan be performed, and the method
is compatible with all current workflows.
Nonchemical labeling strategies also exist. In SILAC (stable isotope labeling
by amino acids in cell culture), essential amino acids are added to an amino-acid-deficient
cell culture medium and, as cells grow, amino acids are incorporated into all
proteins as they are synthesized (Figure 2). No chemical labeling or affinity
purification steps are performed as with the procedures described above, and the
method is likely compatible with many cell culture conditions, including primary
cells. Mathias Mann and colleagues at the University of Southern Denmark have
shown that incorporation can be close to complete and that cells show no phenotypic
differences in the presence of labeled media. They applied SILAC to the study
of mouse C2C12 cells and followed the differentiation from myoblasts into myotubes.
This process of muscle differentiation necessarily involves broad changes in protein
expression levels as the cells differentiate from one cell type to another. Several
proteins were found to be up-regulated during this process.
MS as turnkey
With new chemistries and bioinformatics tools, MS has quickly emerged as a
potent and indispensable technology from among the collection of technical disciplines
used in proteomics. Advances in MS intensify information density and improve data
quality, while the range of applications steadily grows. Important contributions
made over the past few years have relied on the integration of specialized LC
with electrospray ionization (ESI)-MS and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization
(MALDI)-MS workflows. However, while the variety of chemistries and approaches
speaks for our ingenuity, there still is a need for general global quantitative
methods that can be used and integrated with MS and various separation techniques,
such as 1- and 2-DE and LC. All these workflows have typically identified proteins
by peptide mass fingerprinting with MALDI-MS or direct sequence analysis of peptides
through data-dependent microcapillary LC-MS/MS. Quantitation occurs mainly at
the peptide level, although it would be desirable to have this performed at the
MS/MS level, as with the iTRAQ chemicals, to exploit additional accuracy of measurement.
Tandem mass spectrometers have played a crucially enabling role for analyzing
complex mixtures. Most instruments use quadrupoles or ion traps for their initial
mass analysis, followed by further mass analysis after fragmentation. They can
select ions of a particular mass (m/z) from a mixture of ions, fragment
them by a process called collision-induced dissociation (CID), and then record
the precise masses of the resulting fragment ions. When this process is applied
to peptide ions, a peptides amino acid sequence can be deduced. Hence, tandem
MS (MS/MS) enables unambiguous protein identification as it directly confers a
gene sequence to the protein sequence.
The newest entrants, MALDI time-of-flight/time-of-flight (TOF/TOF) analyzers,
are faster, high-resolution tandem mass spectrometers specifically designed for
rapidly sequencing peptides. TOF/TOF instruments combine the advantages of high
sensitivity for peptide analysis with comprehensive peptide fragmentation. In
seconds, multiple MS/MS spectra can be generated from selected peptides until
enough information is obtained or the sample is consumed. TOF/TOF instruments
use a different ion gate than MALDI-TOF instruments that allows improved precursor-ion
selection. Different combinations of MALDI matrix and collision gas determine
the amount of internal energy deposited by the MALDI and CID process, which provides
control over the extent and nature of the fragment ions observed. One acquires
information-rich spectra, often with high-energy fragments. These spectra can
enable the validation of ambiguous database search results that are difficult
to validate manually.
Nowadays, LC/LC-MS/MS procedures using an ESI source are empowering high-throughput
proteomics projects with great success. Although very useful for the process,
there are diminishing returns to using this method in a repetitive manner. In
these workflows, one generally gathers extensive data on previously identified
proteins, through the exhaustive generation of MS/MS spectra for many ions generated.
Here, µLC systems are directly coupled to ESI-MS/MS instruments, which have
the limited time of the LC run to perform all peptide analyses. Often, analyses
are repeated to maximize information content, but repetition also generates massive
data redundancy that has to be analyzed and validated. Currently, analysis and
validation are a considerable bottleneck in large-scale proteomics workflows.
An ideal strategy would decouple the dynamic time limitations of an LC run from
the MS analysis. With the use of a MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometer, one achieves
this, as the instrument is decoupled from the dynamic LC flow; a static flow is
deposited on the MALDI target plate. Consequently the instrument can pause at
any time, even between acquisition and analysis.
Recently, we have proposed a nonredundant (nr) MS strategy in which data analysis
results regulate acquisition. With nrMS, data acquisition and data analysis are
used consecutively. Following primary acquisition, a data analysis step is introduced.
On the basis of knowledge of the first identified protein in the sample, precursor
selection for analysis is then filtered to avoid repetitive identification of
peptides from the same protein. Further analysis is then limited to peptides that
have mass values different from the mass values of unmodified peptides from these
entries. The analysis is re peated until the sample is consumed or all ions are
accounted for. A fundamental component of this nrMS workflow is a TOF/TOF analyzer
capable of generating peptide mass fingerprints and MS/ MS information.
In our nrMS development, we have successfully used the Applied Biosystems 4700
Proteomics Analyzer, which will include this option in its next version of control
software. Another advantage of this instrument is its ability to generate high-energy
fragments (x-, w-, c-, and d- ions) during CID for de novo sequencing or validating
ambiguous database search results. It is also equipped with a high-frequency laser
(200 Hz) that enables high-speed (10 times faster than other instruments) data
acquisition and therefore high-throughput analysis. The nrMS strategy can potentially
be used with any kind of MS/MS platform using a MALDI ionization source.
Integrated technologies
There is enormous potential for applying wide-ranging transcriptomics and proteomics
technologies in clinical and pharmaceutical research. Using these profiling technologies,
one can measure gene expression of cell lines and animal models of disease, take
tissue biopsies for diagnostic and prognostic purposes, monitor patient disease
progress, discover new disease markers, classify diseases at the molecular level,
and use and develop technologies for toxicological purposes and drug testing.
Whatever the application, one must make choices and apply them diligently.
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Figure 3. Comprehensive protein profiling
using combined approaches. (1) Proteins are separated by various technologies
targeting the characteristic and different solubilities of proteins. 2-DE and
1-DE approaches can use labels incorporating fluorescent tags for visualization,
whereas quantitation of liquid-based samples for further analysis is enabled by
incorporation of chemical or biological isotope tags. 1-DE is also ideal for double-tagging,
where fluorescent and chemical tags are incorporated. (2) Depending on the complexity
of the sample, ion-exchange (IE) chromatography can be used prior to (3) microcapillary
liquid chromatography (µLC) MS/MS that is typically interfaced with the
ionization source of a mass spectrometer. For our work using MALDI-TOF/TOF instruments,
we have interfaced the IE-LC/µLC to a MALDI target plate with a robot. (4)
MS/MS with the 4700 Proteomics Analyzer then delivers information for protein
identification and quantitation. |
The use of a multitiered approach involving a number of complementary strategies
that, when combined, broaden ones view of the overall protein flux is preferred
(e.g., Figure 3). Two-dimensional gels are useful as they provide an immediate
visual representation of differences between two states, and quality control of
the samples analyzed, between experiments and over time. In addition, isoform
changes, often due to PTMs, are readily observed using 2-DE. We use in-house-designed
labels for workflows that involve 1-DE gels, as these gels target a different
range of proteins than 2-DE gels do.
For workflows that bypass gels altogether, using ICAT reagents is particularly
convenient as they reduce sample complexity. Besides ICAT reagents, approaches
that use SILAC or iTRAQ reagents may be considered. Although no data reduction
is achieved with these approaches, they can be combined with affinity-based labeling
strategies (e.g., a biotin tag on Cys residues). Finally, this work is combined
with experimental microarray transcript data. We have reported initial results
on this approach for prostate cancer, and the work has been expanded to include
these new strategies. Likewise, for Staphylococcus aureus, a similar approach
has been designed in which we are converging two data typesproteomics and
transcriptomics.
Aims of scientists are not modest, yet they must be directed toward delineating
molecular networks and identifying specific targets that promote the differentiation
and apoptotic potential of cancer cells. Similarly, for debilitating bacterial
infections, we need to gain a better understanding of the complex mechanisms of
antibiotic resistance, and in doing so engage in the full characterization of
these bacterial proteomes. For these projects, and most projects including discovery
aspects, it is important to apply technologies that can detect molecular changes
in the cell without preconceived ideas about what information will be most valuable
to monitor, or which profiling platform will have the greatest impact. |
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