THE LAST SORCERERS: The Path From Alchemy to the Periodic Table, by Richard Morris, Joseph Henry Press, 2003, 224 pages, $24.95 (ISBN 0-309-08905-0)

In his latest book, "The Last Sorcerers: The Path From Alchemy to the Periodic Table," science writer Richard Morris, a physicist by training, elegantly gives us this story. The first nine chapters of the book cover the history of how a succession of individuals built upon the work of their predecessors to forge the periodic table. The last chapter and epilogue go beyond the meaning of the subtitle of the book to discuss the search for subatomic particles, providing chemists a review of the various theories of the structure of the nucleus. Overall, the book is easy to read even for nonchemists, as one would expect from an author who has written 15 books explaining science to the lay public.

Morris delves into the experimental and theoretical contributions from alchemists and chemists from England to the Middle East, illustrating the global nature of the development of science. For example, the first compilation of elements was made by Empedocles of Akragas (492–432 B.C.), in Sicily, who pulled together the four elements of the earlier Ionian philosophers--fire, air, water, and earth. This first periodic table, although crude, was to last until the 18th century.

The mysticism and practical arts of Egypt were then mixed with the musings of the Greek philosophers. Out of this cauldron emerged alchemy, which had the goal of converting base metals to gold and led to the quest for the philosopher's stone. The philosopher's stone, around well before the days of Harry Potter, was an imaginary stone or chemical preparation believed to have the power to transmute base metals into gold. Seven metallic elements--copper, gold, iron, mercury, lead, silver, and tin--as well as the nonmetals carbon and sulfur were known at this time. These elements could be found in their elemental form or could easily be won from rocks at the temperatures available in ancient times.

The center of alchemical activity then shifted to the Middle East. In the 8th century, Ja^-bir ibn Hayya^-n introduced the notion that metals were mixtures of mercury, sulfur, and arsenic--except for gold, which did not include arsenic. With the translation of Arabic writings into Latin during the 11th and 12th centuries, alchemy became a popular venture in Europe. Although the quest to make gold dominated, many discoveries about chemicals and chemical reactions were made during the course of alchemical investigations.

In the 16th century, Paracelsus, an alchemist and physician who roamed about Europe, introduced the notion that all matter is made of three principles: mercury, sulfur, and salt. These principles gave the four elements the properties that they exhibited. Paracelsus' ideas and philosophy did not die when alchemy was overthrown, and can be studied even today at Paracelsus College in Australia. Also, if inclined, one can purchase alchemical elixirs on the Internet.

The 17th-century British natural philosopher Robert Boyle is regarded by some as the founder of modern chemistry, as he dropped the "al" from alchemistry, spelling chemistry as "chymistry." Boyle introduced the notion that an element is a substance that can't be broken down to anything else. He set about to prepare the philosophical mercury needed for the philosopher's stone and described this substance in a paper without giving the preparation, as was typical with many alchemists.

Johann Joachim Becher, in Germany, considered that there were only two elements: water and earth. However, he divided earth into three types: terra lapida, terra mercurialis, and terra pingus. The latter was described as an "oily earth" present in combustible substances. Georg E. Stahl, his student, invented the term "phlogiston" for it. This concept was to dominate the thinking of alchemists and chemists for the next two centuries until the true nature of combustion was uncovered.

In the 18th century, in France, Antoine Lavoisier discovered that combustion required air, and more exactly oxygen, which had been discovered by Joseph Priestley in England--although Priestley called the gas "dephlogisted air." In all, 15 new elements were isolated during these two centuries, which Lavoisier included in his "Table of Substances." Following Empedocles' first compilation, this second periodic table marks a major milestone for modern chemistry, although it still included light and the caloric (fire) element of the alchemist.

The study of the organization of the elements was propelled next by British chemist John Dalton's atomic theory. During the early part of the 19th century, quantitative relationships between the elements in compounds were discovered and measurements of atomic weights were undertaken.

The number of elements grew to 63 by the middle of the century, when Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev of Russia devised the ordering principle that would reveal the true relationships between the elements. His groupings were so successful that he was able to predict properties of elements missing from his table. Mendeleyev's table, with some modifications to include new experimental data, is what we use today.

In science it often happens that the same idea occurs to two or more individuals almost simultaneously. So it was with Mendeleyev and Lother Meyer of Germany, but Mendeleyev published first. It would have been interesting if Morris had also included the method that Meyer used to reach the periodic law. The lesson of this episode indicates the need to publish your results in a timely manner.

One shortcoming of Morris' book is that he selectively regards some stories about the development of the periodic table as more important and tells them in greater detail than others. For example, a single chapter is devoted to Boyle, the "Sceptical Chymist," but only three pages are allowed for Arabic alchemy.

Still, the story that Morris paints emphasizes an important point: Science has always been global in its efforts and will certainly continue in this manner. Chemistry students should be made aware that the chemistry they study came from the input of many people through the ages--and from much hard work. Morris' descriptions of some of these individuals, their environments, and contributions confirm this.

"The Last Sorcerers" is a book that should be used as a supplementary text in freshman chemistry when introducing the periodic table to show the human side of chemistry. For working chemists, it should serve as a reminder of how the advancement of chemistry depends upon the individuals who have done research before you.

PHOTO BY WILL BROWN/COURTESY OF CHEMICAL HERITAGE FOUNDATION

Leopold May is professor of chemistry emeritus at Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C., where he continues his research in Mössbauer spectroscopy, biochemistry, and the history of chemistry.

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